This paper aims to determine the optimum Price of electricity during restructuring process. We maximized social welfare function subject to market equilibrium, maximum production capacity of each group of power plants, maximum demand of each consumer type and the potential of electricity export and import. The model was run using 2007 monthly and annual data by means of GAMS optimization software. The calculated electricity Shadow Price for the year 2007 was 371.2 per KWh. To get more exact results we run the model for each month separately. The results show that the Price of electricity in spring and summer is lower than fall and winter, for marginal cost of power provision in winter rises. This is due to substitution of gas by gasoil and other liquid fuels and also reduction of hydropower production. For both intervals the actual Price has a significant deviation from optimum Price in Iranian power market.

Nowadays there is a need for natural gas in almost every country. Considering the fact that Islamic Republic of Iran is the second owner of natural gas reserves in the world, export of this important factor would be one of the most inevitable subjects in our economy. Furthermore, the benefits of oil export can be replaced by the benefits of gas export. But the high level of domestic consumption is of the most restrictive factors in promoting gas export.The main purpose of this paper is to determine an optimum Price for Iran's natural gas export taking into account the domestic versus international demand for the fuel. In this way we practice a mathematical approach with a linear planning model and considering the concept of opportunity cost in our analysis. In this way the optimum Price would be reviled by adding the Shadow Price to the marginal cost. If we allocate our natural reserves to export, we should add the minimum benefits of domestic consumption to marginal cost of production of gas. Obviously it will result in minimum Price of gas export which is estimated to be 48.8 cent per cubic meter.

Regarding environmental importance and the lack of analytical methods for environmental policies, in this paper, Shadow Price for NOx and SOx emissions has been estimated for the Iranian electric industry. Input distance function is used for estimating Shadow Prices. The estimated Shadow Prices have revealed that the cost of Iranian electric industry for reducing one KG of NOx and Sox is 14991 and 17687 Rials, respectively. Estimated Shadow Prices in this study are greater than the amount offered by EPO (Environment Protection Organization) and World Bank. So it is recommended that any fine should be taken according to the emission Shadow Price.

Background and Objective: The use of groundwater resources for agricultural purposes has led to an excessive withdrawal of aquifers and a reduction in groundwater levels in Iran. This issue has increased the salinity and has seriously threatened the agricultural production farms. Therefore, it is important to measure the cost of pollution caused by the production of different products and determine their Shadow value. For this purpose, the Shadow Price of groundwater salinity in different provinces has been estimated during the period of 1964-1999. Method: In this study, directional output distance function in the quadratic form was used to determine the environmental efficiency and Shadow Price of groundwater salinity. Findings: The technical inefficiency and Shadow value of salinity of the provinces was estimated in the agricultural activity. The results show that the provinces of the country have different conditions in terms of technical inefficiency. The average value of the directional output distance function of Iran is 0. 228. Also, the average Shadow value of salinity in the groundwater of Iran is 0. 278 billion Rials per μ S⁄ cm. Discussion and Conclusion: It is suggested that policies should be developed to control the salinity of groundwater, taking into account the characteristics of each region, and priority should be given to provinces with less Shadow Prices.

Expended Abstract 1. Introduction The use of energy input in addition to physical inputs causes pollution and greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide. Therefore, the energy consumption in the process of production of agricultural products will be accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide. Energy consumption at all stages of the supply chain of a product is most important and its use is associated with externalities. These effects can also occur in the product distribution. Internalizing these external effects involves estimating the environmental damages caused by economic activities, so product Prices are more transparent and can also cover social preferences after internalization. On the other hand, the lack of equality between supply and demand of food products in each region and the distance between production areas and consumption areas, trade, and its distribution become inevitable among different regions. Road transport causes side effects. Greenhouse gas emissions are one of its varieties. Wheat as the main product in the Iranians food basket devoted 51. 2% of the acreage to crops. This acreage in the 2013-2014 crop years produced 10. 58 million tons. Although that energy consumption in the transport sector in the period 2000 to 2014 has increased by 1. 86 times, carbon dioxide emissions has been at a rate of 2. 04 times. Accordingly, emissions increased according to per unit fuel consumption. As a result, taking environmental control policies in this sector become inevitable. The calculation of environmental impacts arising as a result of wheat movement can play an important role in managing green supply chain.

Global warming and climate changes have reached a warning level due to greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. One of the most effective gases in global warming is methane and rice paddy fields is one of the most important sources of CH4 emission. In addition, rice paddies release 22% of total methane in agriculture sector. Techniques for cultivation and management water, can help reduce the emission of this greenhouse gas. In this study, using the data of 2016, the environmental costs of greenhouse gas emissions of rice yield in three scenarios (traditional cultivation or flood irrigation, periodic irrigation and dry direct-seeded) has been estimated by using stochastic frontier of output-distance. Based on the results, the environmental costs of the annual greenhouse gas emissions of the country's rice fields in the traditional, periodic irrigation and dry direct-seeded methods are equal to 633, 356 and 352 billion Rials, respectively. Also, the Shadow Price of methane per kg in these scenarios was calculated to be 5056, 5808, and 5737 rials, respectively. The findings of this study showed that periodic irrigation and dry direct-seeded methods could be an alternative to traditional methods to reduce pollutants and environmental costs. On the other hand, policies must be taken to achieve sustainable development and environmental protection through the internalization of these costs.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate human development and some economic factors affecting the Shadow Price of road accidents in Iran's economy. So this study analyzes this relationship in the form of econometric methods ARDL for (1992-2015) period. The results of this study suggest that the improvement in the level of human development reduces losses from accidents and consequently reduces the Shadow Price of road accidents. Also the results of this study suggest that it can be claimed that GDP and Shadow Price of road accidents and casualties associated with each other. This relationship shows that with economic growth, the Shadow Price of the road casualties' increase and after reaching a milestone, the Price of Shadow road casualties will reduce. In other words, this is the inverse U Kuznets curve relationship that is applied truly for Iran in relation to the Shadow Price of the road casualties and GDP. Another result obtained in this study, shows the negative relationship between the investment variable in transportation infrastructure with road casualties Shadow Prices and positive relationship between the numbers of vehicles with road casualties Shadow Price.

One big challenge every society has to deal with is the problem of road accidents and casualties after them. Many believe that this imposes huge economic costs on the society. Compared with developed countries, developing nations suffer from larger numbers of victims in this crisis that is why road accidents in these countries are known as one of the major causes of death. The aim of this study is to evaluate some economic factors which affect the Shadow Price of road accidents in Iran’ s economy. This study analyses the relationship between these factors and the Shadow Price in the form of ARDL econometric methods during the period 1996-2018. According to the obtained results, it can be claimed that the GDP and Shadow Price of accidents and traffic correlate with each other. This correlation shows the Shadow Price in Iran increases along with economic growth, and after reaching a turning point, it begins to decline. In other words, it could be said that the relation between the Shadow Price of road casualty and GDP in Iran seem to behave similarly to the inverted U-curve of Kuznets. Therefore, it was indicated that the Smeed’ s law can be applied in Iran.

Natural gas plays a key role in Iran’ s economy and using its Shadow Price in allocating it to different sectors can lead to optimal use of this resource. This study uses a non-linear input-output model to estimate the Shadow Price of natural gas in different economic sectors in Iran. The study uses values of the input-output table constructed by the Statistics Center of Iran for the year 2011. Using the non-linear input-output model allows us to simultaneously specify the Shadow Price of gas in different productive activities. In addition, the model can specify different values for Shadow Prices of different units of gas consumed by the same activity. The simultaneity of these two features distinguishes the present study from previous ones conducted in the country. According to our research, the Shadow Price of gas in productive activities is dependent on the change in outputs stemming from changes in natural gas consumption. However, the Shadow Price of gas is often neglected in allocating natural gas to different activities. Except for the production, transmission, and distribution of electricity, the use of natural gas in other activities is profitable with an 11 to 98 percent increase in gas Prices.

The agriculture sector, as a key sector in the national economy, plays an important role in food security and economic development. Iran has a special position in the production of agricultural products with its climatic diversity and unique features, but due to dry and semi-arid weather conditions and scattered rainfall, it faces the problem of water scarcity. This issue has caused the inconsistency between water scarcity and agricultural competitiveness. The main purpose of the present research is to answer the question whether the Shadow Price of water is effective on the competitiveness of the agricultural sector. For this purpose and in the first stage, using the production function approach, the Shadow Price of selected Iranian agricultural products (including wheat, rice, potato and corn in selected provinces) was estimated during the period of 2001-2018 (based on the latest available data) and then in the next step, the research question was answered with the approach of system dynamics. The results of the simulation and sensitivity analysis of the model show that by applying the Shadow Price and increasing the Price of water, the demand for water consumption in the agricultural sector is reduced, and with the negative effect on the product performance, the competitiveness of the selected agricultural products is reduced. Based on this and considering the strategic importance of the agricultural sector, water pricing should be done with special sensitivity, but technological and soft measures to save and increase water productivity in the agricultural sector and to improve the optimal cultivation pattern as well as the foreign trade pattern are essential.